{"id":15893,"date":"2021-10-08T11:15:42","date_gmt":"2021-10-08T16:15:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.dharma.org\/?p=15893"},"modified":"2021-10-08T11:22:40","modified_gmt":"2021-10-08T16:22:40","slug":"overcoming-fear-by-recollecting-the-buddha-his-role-in-early-buddhist-texts","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.dharma.org\/overcoming-fear-by-recollecting-the-buddha-his-role-in-early-buddhist-texts\/","title":{"rendered":"Overcoming Fear by Recollecting the Buddha: His Role in Early Buddhist Texts"},"content":{"rendered":"

By Bhikkhu An\u0101layo<\/strong><\/p>\n

Key words<\/strong>: anussati<\/em>;\u00a0anusm\u1e5bti<\/em>; fear; the nature of the Buddha;\u00a0paritta<\/em>;\u00a0<\/em>protective texts; recollection of the Buddha; the role of the Buddha<\/p>\n

Abstract<\/strong><\/p>\n

The employment of mindfulness in a traditional setting includes the practice of recollection, which can serve to counter fear. In the early discourses, the role of the Buddha as the object of such recollection is not to embody some kind of cosmic principle, as has recently been suggested by Eviatar Shulman. Instead, the inspiration to be gained from recollecting the Buddha springs in particular from his having become totally free from defilements and teaching others how to do the same.<\/p>\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n

The early Buddhist discourses provide various perspectives on the topic of fear (Brekke 1999;\u00a0Giustarini 2012;\u00a0Weerasinghe 1997). One way of facing fear with mindfulness relates to the four postures of walking, standing, sitting, and lying down (An\u0101layo 2020b). The task is simply to remain with awareness in whichever of these four postures one happens to be when fear arises, rather than reacting in one way or another. This illustrates\u00a0a type of attitude that is indeed salient in mindfulness training in general, namely the ability to remain aware of what happens without immediately reacting to it.<\/p>\n

Another dimension of the employment of mindfulness in the early discourses relates to the practice of recollection (An\u0101layo 2020a). In addition to the Buddha himself, the practice of recollection described in the early discourses can take up the following objects:<\/p>\n

the teaching (Dharma) of the Buddha,<\/p>\n

the community of his noble disciples,<\/p>\n

one\u2019s own accomplishment in morality,<\/p>\n

one\u2019s own accomplishment in generosity,<\/p>\n

one\u2019s own accomplishment in qualities shared with celestial beings.<\/p>\n

When employed as a way to counter fear, the task of such recollection is not so much about directing mindfulness toward the experience of fear itself. Instead, reminding oneself of a source of inspiration, such as the Buddha, is what serves to counter fear. This apparent potential brings up the question of what the Buddha stood for in early Buddhist thought. Whereas the potential reassurance of recollecting one\u2019s own accomplishment in morality, generosity, or other qualities probably does not require much comment, the potential of the same practice in relation to the Buddha depends very much on the associations he calls up in the mind of the practitioner.<\/p>\n

Disciples of the Buddha can in principle be expected to be able to relate to the other objects of recollection, listed above, from within their personal sphere of experience. Practicing disciples would have had at least some exposure to the Buddha\u2019s teaching, probably have at least heard of other disciples considered to be noble ones, and would be acquainted with their own morality and generosity, as well as with whatever other qualities they possess that in the ancient Indian setting were considered to be conducive to a heavenly existence. In view of this setting, it could be expected that the Buddha similarly represented something which disciples could relate to from within the viewpoint of their own personal experience.<\/p>\n

The Buddha in the Early Texts<\/strong><\/h5>\n

Scholarship on early Buddhism seems to be in general agreement that a shift in perspective regarding the Buddha took place in the course of time. Whereas in early Buddhist thought the Buddha was predominantly seen as an exceptional human being (which would fit the above-mentioned requirement of being more relatable to personal experience) in later tradition he became increasingly deified. The general agreement on this tendency can be exemplified with the help of a few selected quotes from various scholars.<\/p>\n

In a study of later P\u0101li texts believed by tradition to record past lives of the Buddha, Behm (1971, p. 41) found \u201cdefinite and\u00a0unmistakeable signs of the divinisation\u00a0of the Buddha.\u201d According to Coomaraswamy (1928, p. 838), Buddhist texts in general show that \u201cthe activity of the earthly Buddha, originally a living memory, has become, as it were, the\u00a0l\u012bl\u0101<\/em>\u00a0[display] of a deity; it is related in the later literature with a corresponding miraculous enhancement.\u201d Chaudhary (1994, p. 65) observed that in the ancient Indian setting the<\/p>\n

concept of God was that He was all omnipotent and omniscient and He would protect him who would go to His refuge. The common people naturally felt drawn towards such a God. Buddha was [eventually] also conceived in such a way as to possess divine qualities. Thus Buddha was gradually shorn of human characteristics and superhuman qualities were bestowed on him. He was deified.<\/p>\n

Gokhale (1994\/2001, p. 71) pointed out that soon enough \u201cthe Buddha ceases to be an ordinary human being, and is elevated to the status of a person greater than some of the great gods of the Vedic mythology.\u201d Har Dayal (1932\/1970, p. 28) explored the background to such developments, explaining that<\/p>\n

the competition of the rival Indian sects and movements also led the Buddhists to advance new claims on behalf of their leader \u2026 they transformed him into a living immortal, powerful and gracious\u00a0deva<\/em>\u00a0\u2026 his humanity, his physical body and his death were therefore denied or thrown into the background.<\/p>\n

Harrison (1978, p. 37) succinctly summed up that \u201cwith the passage of time the Buddha became less an object of emulation and more an object of devotion, growing in stature as memories faded.\u201d<\/p>\n

Horner (1936\/1979, p. 203) similarly observed that \u201cthe idea of Gotama as a god \u2026 came more and more to be in the air as his life on earth became more distant and more legendary.\u201d Karunaratne (1973, p. 496) explained that the Buddha \u201cwas respected, adored and idealised. This tendency \u2026 culminated in the belief that the Buddha was not a human being, but a superhuman being, a\u00a0deva<\/em>.\u201d Nakamura (1960, pp. 152 and 157) contrasted early texts in which the Buddha \u201cwas in every respect regarded merely as a superior man\u201d with later times when \u201cas a consequence of the gradual process of deification \u2026 he works wonders, he is omniscient.\u201d<\/p>\n

Pachow (1976, p. 267) commented on the Buddha that \u201cafter his death he was elevated to the plane of a superman, and then made into a great divinity.\u201d Werner (1991, p. 16) explained that the \u201cBuddha was no longer seen as a mere man who had found the way to Enlightenment and led others towards it, but came to be regarded as an embodiment of the cosmic principle of Enlightenment,\u201d leading to an \u201celevation of the Buddha to a cosmic figure, if not a virtual deity.\u201d<\/p>\n

The assessment evident in the above quotes has recently been challenged by Shulman (2017a, b, 2019) who argued that the Buddha\u2019s role as a cosmic figure is already characteristic of early Buddhist texts. This would of course substantially change the implications of recollecting the Buddha as described in the early discourses. Hence, a closer examination of the proposed arguments is required in order to see to what extent the early discourses cited in support of these ideas testify to such a role.<\/p>\n

The Buddha as the Main Concern of the Discourses?<\/strong><\/h5>\n

Regarding the overall role of the Buddha in the early discourses, Shulman (2017b, p. 365) proposed that \u201cthe orientation of all other characters in the discourses\u201d serves to achieve a \u201cpositioning of the Buddha as a superhuman hero.\u201d Thus, \u201cearly Buddhist texts are about the Buddha, not as a historical figure but as an ideal type, as a unique cosmic being\u201d (p. 366):<\/p>\n

Buddhist texts are thus also pictures of the Buddha and include an aspect of visualization; they are continuous to, and even participate in, the traditional meditative practice of\u00a0Buddha<\/em>–anusm\u1e5bti<\/em>, \u201cmindfulness of the Buddha\u201d or \u201ccommemoration of the Buddha.\u201d<\/p>\n

There can hardly be any doubt that the Buddha is the most important protagonist in the early discourses. However, it also needs to be acknowledged that some discourses are spoken by disciples and do not involve the Buddha. For example, the\u00a0P\u0101y\u0101si-sutta<\/em>\u00a0in the\u00a0D\u012bgha-nik\u0101ya\u00a0<\/em>could not be considered to reflect an overall orientation of positioning the Buddha as a superhuman hero (DN 23 and its parallels D\u0100 7, M\u0100 71, and T 45), something that in this case is particularly evident in the circumstance that a similar discourse exists in the Jain tradition (Boll\u00e9e 2002). The Buddhist version of this discourse takes place after the Buddha had passed away and thus at a time when recollecting him must have acquired increasing importance. Yet, the whole discourse does not even refer to him, which could have easily been done by mentioning him as the source of the teachings presented by the Buddhist monk who serves as the main protagonist of this discourse.<\/p>\n

It also does not seem possible to consider the early discourses to be invariably presenting the Buddha as a hero. A case in point is the report of a mass suicide of monastics after the Buddha had apparently given a brief recommendation regarding meditation on the lack of attractiveness of the human body (An\u0101layo\u00a02012). The narrative quite definitely does not accord to the Buddha the role of an ideal type of meditation teacher, given that some of his disciples became so unbalanced that they killed themselves. Another example would be the report of the recently awakened Buddha\u2019s first encounter with a potential disciple. The\u00a0Ariyapariyesan\u0101-sutta\u00a0<\/em>and its parallel agree that the person in question remained simply unconvinced by the Buddha\u2019s claims and left (MN 26 and M\u0100 204; An\u0101layo 2011, p. 183). This is hardly a portrayal of the Buddha as a superhuman hero.<\/p>\n

The early discourses do not even present a complete biographical account of the Buddha, nor do they so much as mention his personal name. Their overall concern is much rather the Dharma discovered by him. This is not to deny that at times early discourses eulogize the Buddha in various ways. But alongside such occurrences there are also cases like the\u00a0Sampas\u0101dan\u012bya-sutta\u00a0<\/em>and its parallels, which report the Buddha quite explicitly discouraging his chief disciple S\u0101riputta from voicing praise of the Buddha in a way that went beyond what S\u0101riputta could actually ascertain based on his\u00a0own personal experience.<\/p>\n

Mann\u00e9 (1990, p. 61) then went to the other extreme in interpretation by alleging that the P\u0101li version of this discourse (DN 28) is a debate in which \u201cit is the Buddha who is defeated\u201d (see also DiSimone 2016). The idea that the early discourses would present S\u0101riputta as successfully challenging his teacher does not concord with what the actual discourse conveys. The\u00a0Sampas\u0101dan\u012bya-sutta\u00a0<\/em>sets out with S\u0101riputta voicing his conviction that nobody in past, present, or future times was superior to the Buddha in matters of awakening. The Buddha replied by querying if S\u0101riputta had examined the minds of past, present, and future Buddhas with telepathic knowledge before making such a proclamation. S\u0101riputta had to admit that he had not done so. However, he was able to know by inference that all Buddhas, past, present, and future, overcame the five hindrances, dwelled with the mind well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, and cultivated the seven awakening factors. S\u0101riputta then reported his own experience in hearing instructions from the Buddha and benefitting from them, followed by listing various types of teachings the Buddha had promulgated. The Buddha thereon approved of S\u0101riputta\u2019s presentation.<\/p>\n

This is not a depiction of adversaries in a debate, with one defeating the other. Rather, the main point of the discourse appears to be that the Buddha\u2019s eminence should be seen in what he taught. Instead of some general acclaim of the Buddha\u2019s superiority that goes beyond what the speaker can personally verify, similar in type to the statement reportedly made by S\u0101riputta at the outset of this exchange, what the early discourses deem praiseworthy is the efficacy of the Buddha\u2019s teachings. As testified to by S\u0101riputta, this is something that can be personally experienced. The main concern here is not a vision of the Buddha but a vision of the Dharma.<\/p>\n

The Buddha and Aj\u0101tasattu<\/strong><\/h5>\n

Another instance relevant to evaluating the role of the Buddha occurs in the\u00a0S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1aphala-sutta<\/em>\u00a0and its parallels, which report an encounter between the patricide King Aj\u0101tasattu and the Buddha (DN 2 and its discourse parallels D\u0100 27, T 22, and E\u0100 43.7). Shulman (2017b, p. 376) commented on the concluding narrative, which depicts the king admitting his patricide in front of the Buddha, that here the \u201cemotional power of the king\u2019s transformation \u2026 is deeply significant as a depiction of the Buddha\u2019s unique cosmological status.\u201d The passage then supposedly shows that the \u201cBuddha is reflected here not only as a religious teacher but also as an embodiment of fundamental truth\u201d (p. 375). The proposed interpretation is based on the assumption by Shulman (2017b, p. 374) that the king was searching for \u201ca religious teacher who has the power to pardon his sin\u201d and that the discourse \u201chints that the Buddha has the ability to pardon the king in a manner that is karmically consequential\u201d (Shulman 2017b, p. 375 n. 55 reflects a more nuanced understanding, although this does not seem to have led to a reconsideration of the overall conclusions on the import of this episode).<\/p>\n

The idea that the Buddha\u2019s acceptance of the king\u2019s declaration in the\u00a0S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1aphala-sutta<\/em>\u00a0involved some form of pardon is unconvincing. As explained by Derrett (1997, p. 59), based on studying the present episode, those who accept such acknowledgements of one\u2019s misdeed \u201cdo not forgive or pardon him, nor is the offence atoned for, or washed away. No \u2018amends\u2019 are made \u2026 condonation is not in point here \u2026 [but] an acceptance occurs like a creditor\u2019s issuing a receipt.\u201d In an article dedicated to the same episode, Attwood (2008, p. 299) concluded that \u201con Buddhist doctrinal grounds it would be inconsistent to say that by confessing Aj\u0101tasattu had \u2018made amends\u2019 for his crime,\u201d an idea not supported by the actual narrative (see also An\u0101layo 2016a, p. 6). It seems, then, that this episode may just be intending to portray how the inspiration gained from hearing a discourse on the benefits of becoming a Buddhist monastic motivated the king to acknowledge his patricide in public, and this acknowledgement was then accepted by the Buddha. This much does not suffice to establish the Buddha\u2019s unique cosmological status, at least in the early discourses concerned with this episode (the same does not hold equally for later texts; see Radich 2011).<\/p>\n

The Buddha as a Manifestation of Cosmic Structure?<\/strong><\/h5>\n

In a publication mainly dedicated to the theme of the cosmological dimensions of Buddhahood in early and later P\u0101li texts, Shulman (2017a, p. 167) argued that even the former type of texts shows that the Buddha \u201cis truth itself, not just a person who has discovered the truth\u2014a manifestation of cosmic structure rather than a mere man;\u201d in fact, the Buddha even allegedly takes on the role of \u201can eternal cosmic element.\u201d As one out of several arguments in support of the Buddha\u2019s supposed cosmological role, Shulman (2017a, p. 176) took up\u00a0the introductory narration to the\u00a0P\u0101r\u0101yana-vagga<\/em>\u00a0and its chief protagonist, the brahmin\u00a0B\u0101vari (or B\u0101var\u012b; see Bodhi 2017, p. 1358 n. 224), in the following way:<\/p>\n

The mere fact that there is a Buddha to be found has dispelled B\u0101var\u012b\u2019s fears. Knowing that a Buddha \u201cmanifestation\u201d (p\u0101tubh\u0101vo<\/em>) \u201chas arisen in the world\u201d (lokamhi uppanno<\/em>) he is confident that truth will prevail. Here, clearly, the Buddha is not a man but an embodiment of cosmic structure.<\/p>\n

Consultation of the actual text (Sn 976\u20131031) makes it doubtful that the Buddha functions here as an embodiment of cosmic structure. B\u0101vari has been cursed by another brahmin and is terrified at the thought that within a week his head will split into seven parts as a consequence of this curse.\u00a0The trope of splitting the head is a recurrent one in Indian literature in general and as such does not necessarily carry specific Buddhist connotations (see, e.g.\u00a0Insler 1989\/1990 and\u00a0Witzel 1987).<\/p>\n

When informed that there is a \u201cBuddha\u201d who knows about head splitting, B\u0101vari sends his students to meet the Buddha and inquire about this matter. He instructs them to check first if the Buddha has indeed the thirty-two special physical marks of a Buddha and then ask some questions just in their minds, without verbalizing them aloud, in order to find out if the Buddha would understand and provide the appropriate answers. Only after having in this way checked him thoroughly should they inquire about the topic of head splitting.<\/p>\n

Given that B\u0101vari provides such detailed instructions on how the Buddha should be tested, it seems that at this point he is not yet sure \u201cthat truth will prevail.\u201d In fact, the term truth does not appear to occur at all in the introductory narration. Although hearing the word \u201cBuddha\u201d does have a remarkable effect on B\u0101vari, the overall situation could hardly be considered to reflect the Buddha functioning as \u201can embodiment of cosmic structure.\u201d This is not to deny that the Buddha is qualified with somewhat hyperbolic terms in this narration, such as Sn 991:\u00a0lokan\u0101yako<\/em>\u00a0and Sn 995:\u00a0lokan\u0101tho<\/em>. Yet, being a \u201cworld leader\u201d and a \u201cworld protector\u201d are still compatible with the notion of the Buddha\u2019s humanity and do not suffice to make him an embodiment of cosmic structure.<\/p>\n

Another argument by Shulman (2017a, p. 190) proposed that, from \u201ca philosophical viewpoint, the thirty-two marks can be understood as an elaboration and fortification of the logic of patterned, cosmological Buddhahood.\u201d Closer inspection shows that the early discourses only testify to the beginnings of tendencies toward such later conceptions rather than to their full development. Such incipient tendencies can be discerned with the help of comparative study, which shows that the trope of the thirty-two characteristics of the body of a Buddha originally would have served as a means for the conversion of brahmins, who were trained in the lore of recognizing these characteristics (An\u0101layo 2017a, pp. 43\u2013101). Due to an apparent cross-fertilization between texts and art, the marks gradually came to be conceived of as more readily visible by the general public, without any need to train in their lore. This in turn paved the way for them to acquire more general functions related to conversion and inspiration in the texts. It is only at a stage of considerable maturation of these developments that it would be meaningful to bring in the idea of cosmological Buddhahood.<\/p>\n

The same comparative study also brings to light that envisioning the possession of the thirty-two bodily marks as a \u201crule\u201d or \u201claw\u201d (dhammat\u0101\/dharmat\u0101<\/em>)\u00a0<\/em>for Buddhas in general is also the outcome of a gradual development, as such possession was apparently not from the outset considered indispensable for becoming a Buddha (An\u0101layo 2017a, pp. 87\u201389). Moreover, even once the thirty-two bodily marks feature as such a rule or law, in the early discourse this only finds application to the six Buddhas believed to have lived prior to the Buddha Gotama. The main narrative function of the list of six former Buddhas appears to be to authenticate the Buddha Gotama by providing him with predecessors, similar to the Vedic sages and\u00a0t\u012brtha\u1e43kara<\/em>s of the Brahminical and Jain traditions. Such authentication carries no necessary implications of an invariable cosmic principle. However, Shulman (2017a, p. 186f) took the qualification\u00a0dhammat\u0101\u00a0<\/em>(translated by him as a \u201claw of nature\u201d) to imply the following:<\/p>\n

Buddhahood is conceived as a natural event that participates in an elaborate cosmic movement; it is part of the very structure of nature \u2026 a Buddha is the prime expression of \u201cnature.\u201d According to this logic there is no separation between a divine realm or identity and the human world or being, since there is only one integrated, holistic cosmos. This cosmos is not static, but one in continuous movement toward Buddhahood. The movement of cosmos makes space not only for Buddhahood as a cosmic principle, but for the continual endeavor for it to come into full being, \u201cto arise.\u201d<\/p>\n

In other P\u0101li discourses, the term\u00a0dhammat\u0101\u00a0<\/em>can convey quite ordinary meanings. For example, it is\u00a0dhammat\u0101<\/em>\u00a0that no regrets will arise in a virtuous person (AN 10.2:\u00a0dhammat\u0101 es\u0101, bhikkhave, ya\u1e43 s\u012blavato s\u012blasampannassa avippa\u1e6dis\u0101ro uppajjati<\/em>, with a counterpart in M\u0100 43:\u00a0\u4f46\u6cd5\u81ea\u7136,\u00a0\u6301\u6212\u8005\u4fbf\u5f97\u4e0d\u6094). In other words, the term\u00a0dhammat\u0101\u00a0<\/em>as such can simply convey that something can safely be expected; it will usually occur. In the words of Shulman (2017a, p. 186), it can simply refer to \u201ca regularity or natural occurrence of events.\u201d It follows that the term as such need not carry any cosmic significance. The P\u0101li phrase just quoted also testifies to a usage of the verb \u201cto arise\u201d (uppajjati<\/em>) that similarly can have quite ordinary connotations. This helps put into perspective another suggestion by\u00a0Shulman (2017a, p. 183), according to which the \u201cidea regarding the Buddha\u2019s \u2018arising\u2019 is crucial to understanding the metaphysical and cosmological conception of the Buddha.\u201d This suggestion concerns a standard phrase with which the P\u0101li discourses introduce an account of the gradual path, which reads: \u201ca Tath\u0101gata arises in the world,\u201d\u00a0tath\u0101gato loke uppajjati<\/em>. Shulman (2017a, p. 184) reasoned that this phrase<\/p>\n

presents the Buddha\u2019s attainment not as an earthly culmination of a spiritual path, but as an expression of an underlying cosmic reality \u2026 this articulation regarding the Buddha is heavily metaphysical and the idea of his \u201carising\u201d possesses important cosmological and theological underpinnings. That is to say \u2026 the cosmological event of the manifestation of Buddhahood.<\/p>\n

Yet, one of three marks of\u00a0the\u00a0conditioned nature of phenomena is that they \u201carise\u201d (AN 3.47:\u00a0upp\u0101do\u00a0<\/em>and its parallels E\u0100 22.5:\u00a0\u5f9e\u8d77\u00a0and Up 2061: skye bar<\/em>).\u00a0In fact, the whole \u201cworld\u201d can be said to \u201carise,\u201d in the sense that it arises in the \u201csix\u201d senses (SN 1.70:\u00a0chasu loko samuppanno\u00a0<\/em>(see also Sn 169) and its parallel S\u0100 1008:\u00a0\u4e16\u516d\u6cd5\u7b49\u8d77; another parallel in S\u01002<\/sup>\u00a0235 conveys a different sense). The whole phrase\u00a0loke uppajjati<\/em>, \u201carises in the world,\u201d can elsewhere refer to the arising of counterfeit teachings (SN 16.13:\u00a0saddhammapa\u1e6dir\u016bpaka\u1e43 loke uppajjati<\/em>, with parallels in S\u0100 906:\u00a0\u76f8\u4f3c\u50cf\u6cd5\u51fa\u4e16\u9593\u00a0and S\u01002<\/sup>\u00a0121:\u00a0\u50cf\u6cd5\u51fa\u00a0(the last thus does not refer to the \u201cworld\u201d); see also SHT III 867 V4, Waldschmidt et al. 1971, p. 117:\u00a0saddharmapratir\u016bpake\u1e63u loke pr\u0101durbh\u016bte[\u1e63u]<\/em>, which employs a different verb).<\/p>\n

The proposed interpretation of the phrase\u00a0tath\u0101gato loke uppajjati<\/em>, at least as far as the P\u0101li discourses is concerned, is unconvincing. The phrase in question can simply be understood to refer to the Buddha\u2019s awakening as a necessary condition for his teaching activity and hence disclosure of the gradual path to awakening.\u00a0The commentary on the first occurrence of this phrase in the P\u0101li discourses (DN 2) employs the same verb in relation to a range of different beings (Sv I 173:\u00a0tath\u0101gato, paccekabuddh\u0101, aggas\u0101vak\u0101, as\u012bti mah\u0101ther\u0101, buddham\u0101t\u0101, buddhapit\u0101, cakkavatt\u012br\u0101j\u0101, a\u00f1\u00f1e ca s\u0101rappatt\u0101 br\u0101hma\u1e47agahapatik\u0101 etth\u2019 eva uppajjanti<\/em>). This shows that even the commentarial tradition did not invest the phrase \u201cto arise in the world\u201d with the type of connotation proposed.<\/p>\n

In sum, the above surveyed arguments in support of envisioning the role of the Buddha in the early discourses to point to his embodying the cosmic structure are not convincing. The presentation appears to conflate different historical strata of texts. Although it is indeed the case that there has been a tendency among early generations of scholars of Buddhism to ignore mythic and supernormal aspects of early Buddhism, correcting this lack of balance should not go overboard by projecting later developments onto the early texts.<\/p>\n

The Buddha in the\u00a0J\u0101taka<\/em>s<\/strong><\/h5>\n

The need to adopt a text-historical perspective holds similarly for the role accorded to the Buddha in the P\u0101li\u00a0J\u0101taka\u00a0<\/em>collection. According to Shulman (2018, p. 18),<\/p>\n

in some stories, for example, the Buddha is a tangential figure or one of questionable moral character. This supposed anomaly is easily explained when we see that much of the focus of the JA [J\u0101taka<\/em>\u00a0collection] is not necessarily on the stories of the past, but on the Buddha\u2019s ability to tell them. This is the Buddha\u2019s omniscience.<\/p>\n

The identification of tangential figures or those with questionable moral character as past lives of the Buddha is more meaningfully understood as the result of such narratives originating from the adoption of various folk tales and stories (An\u0101layo\u00a02010, pp. 56\u201371). With a limited number of protagonists, one of which must be considered a former life of the Buddha so as to incorporate the tale into the\u00a0J\u0101taka\u00a0<\/em>collection, at times the choice fell on a \u201ctangential figure or one of questionable moral character.\u201d<\/p>\n

The incorporation of originally non-Buddhist tropes can be illustrated with the perhaps most famous among Therav\u0101da\u00a0j\u0101taka\u00a0<\/em>tales, which depicts prince Vessantara giving away his possessions, children, and wife as gifts to brahmins. Shulman (2018, p. 28), who takes this tale up only briefly, reasoned that \u201cwhen the prince gives away his children and wife \u2026 we find the Bodhisatta clearly aware that his efforts are directed toward omniscience.\u201d Comparative study of this particular\u00a0j\u0101taka<\/em>\u00a0shows that the main theme is to inculcate the need to give to begging brahmins whatever they demand (An\u0101layo\u00a02016b). Presumably having originated in a setting imbued with Brahminical values, the adoption of the tale by Buddhist story-tellers would have served the closely similar function of encouraging lay supporters to give to begging Buddhist monastics, who in a traditional Buddhist society had come to occupy the role of brahmins. In this setting, the notion of efforts directed toward omniscience is best seen as a later adjustment that happened when integrating this tale into the\u00a0J\u0101taka\u00a0<\/em>collection, in fact, the very attribution of omniscience to the Buddha is also a development later than the period reflected by the majority of early discourses (An\u0101layo 2006).<\/p>\n

The case of Vessantara also helps to put into perspective the position taken by Shulman (2018, p. 13) that, even though previous scholarship has often focused on the origination of such stories from non-Buddhist settings, the\u00a0J\u0101taka<\/em>s should rather be seen as \u201ca genuine, legitimate expression of Buddhist consciousness, precisely because they offer Buddhist versions or adaptations of stories of wider consequence.\u201d Vessantara\u2019s decisions to give away his children and wife are not easily reconciled with basic Buddhist ethical values and are hardly a genuine expression of Buddhist consciousness. The popularity of the tale could well be due to the fertile field of friction caused by the transposition of a Brahminical plot into the setting of a past life of the Buddha without being fully adapted to Buddhist ethical values (as that would have compromised its encouragement of relentless giving). In this way, a comparative study and the adoption of a text-historical perspective make it possible to develop a considerably more nuanced appreciation of the narrative functions of this tale.<\/p>\n

Protective Texts<\/strong><\/h5>\n

In another publication concerned with texts that serve a protective function,\u00a0paritta<\/em>, Shulman (2019, pp. 226 and 227) argued that \u201cthe\u00a0Ratana[-sutta]<\/em>\u00a0speaks of the Buddha as the deepest truth \u2026 who is a power of a different order, the very truth to which all beings and worlds adhere.\u201d Yet, the only mention of \u201ctruth\u201d in the actual discourse is a recurrent phrase according to which \u201cby this truth, may there be safety\u201d (Sn 224 to 235:\u00a0etena saccena suvatthi hotu<\/em>), and two references to thoroughly seeing and clearly understanding the noble truths\u00a0(Sn 229:\u00a0ariyasacc\u0101ni avecca passati<\/em>\u00a0and Sn 230:\u00a0ariyasacc\u0101ni vibh\u0101vayanti<\/em>). The former type of reference reflects ancient Indian conceptions of the power of statements of truth (see, e.g.,\u00a0Brown 1968, 1972a, b, Burlingame 1917, Coomaraswamy 1944, Venkatasubbiah 1940, Wayman 1968). The latter type concerns insight into the noble truths by disciples. None of these provides a sound basis for assuming that there is a \u201cpowerful ideology at work in the text: that the Buddha not only expresses or realizes truth, but that\u00a0he is this<\/em>\u00a0truth\u201d (Shulman 2019, p. 230), or that \u201cthe truth beckoned by the\u00a0Ratana[-sutta]\u00a0<\/em>is not only a philosophical or theoretical one but consists of the very ontological reality that Buddha is truth itself \u2026 the fundamental reality of the cosmos, the supremacy and immanent power of the Buddha\u201d (p. 231).<\/p>\n

Regarding the\u00a0Metta-sutta\u00a0<\/em>(Sn 143 to 152), Shulman (2019, p. 234) argued that this discourse reflects \u201ca crucial element in the Buddhist understanding of the Buddha,\u201d namely that \u201cthe Buddha is a cosmological element at the core of reality; there is nothing abstract about him; he protects because he cares, because he has become utter care, so that he is fully identified with the protective power of love itself.\u201d Yet, the entire discourse does not have an explicit reference to the Buddha at all, who only features as the unnamed speaker of a text which describes the appropriate conduct and mental cultivation of\u00a0mett\u0101\u00a0<\/em>by a disciple. This undermines the proposed conclusions.<\/p>\n

In relation to the\u00a0Ma\u1e45gala-sutta\u00a0<\/em>(Sn 258 to 269), Shulman (2019, p. 235) proposed that it \u201cpositions the Buddha as the embodiment and source of Blessing \u2026 the Buddha is the complete materialization of goodness and truth.\u201d The discourse lists different types of conduct and qualities as forms of blessings; the only reference to truth concerns again seeing the noble truths (Sn 267:\u00a0ariyasacc\u0101na dassana\u1e43<\/em>). What Shulman (p. 235) himself qualifies as \u201csimple and direct moral instructions\u201d like, for example, \u201cnot associating with fools,\u201d \u201cresiding in a suitable place,\u201d or \u201csupporting one\u2019s mother and father\u201d (Sn 259, 260, 262) can hardly be construed to imply that the Buddha himself is the source of blessing.<\/p>\n

Again, in relation to two P\u0101li discourses that describe the deities of the moon and the sun going for refuge to the Buddha in order to avert an eclipse (SN 2.9 and SN 2.10), which in the ancient Indian imagination was conceived of as a seizure by the demon R\u0101hu, Shulman (2019, p. 219) argued:<\/p>\n

The Buddha commands the worlds, including the skies and the divine or demonic beings that inhabit them. He exercises control over the universe, and specifically over the threatening powers within it. The Buddha has the ability to avert even the most dangerous and exceptional natural events of solar and lunar eclipses.<\/p>\n

The actual episodes are not about the Buddha exercising control over the universe. Similar to other instances already\u00a0discussed above, they rely on the ancient Indian conception of the power of making statements of truth. In the present case, this power lies in the proclamation by the moon and the sun deities that they have gone for refuge to the Buddha. Due to the power of this truth, the demon R\u0101hu has to release them, otherwise his head would split into seven pieces (another ancient Indian trope, as already mentioned above). According to\u00a0Kong (2012, p. 81), \u201cthe power of [a] truth utterance and the person who declares a true statement are two separate entities. The power is activated when [the] spoken words correspond with fact.\u201d<\/p>\n

Shulman (2019, p. 218) attempted to buttress his interpretation by translating a statement made by the demon R\u0101hu as \u201cI have been bound by a verse sung by the Buddha,\u201d adding in a footnote (23): \u201cLiterally R\u0101hu says that he has been sung a verse by the Buddha; I understand this to convey that being sung a verse, he is captured by it, which reflects the power of Buddha\u2019s speech.\u201d Yet, the original is just about a verse recited by the Buddha, without a hint at any capture.\u00a0A Sanskrit fragment parallel to the first of the two discourses, concerned with the moon, has preserved the term in question, confirming that the issue is something \u201crecited\u201d (Waldschmidt 1970, p. 183:\u00a0abhig\u012btena<\/em>). Chinese parallels to the second of these two discourses, concerned with the sun, convey the same sense of a verse recited by the Buddha (S\u0100 583:\u00a0\u8aaa\u546a\u5048\u00a0and\u00a0S\u0100\u00b2 167:\u00a0\u8aaa\u5048).<\/p>\n

According to\u00a0Kong (2012, p. 79), \u201cthe feature\u2014that the power of truth and the person who activates it are two separate entities\u2014may perhaps explain the reason why the\u00a0Paritt\u0101\u00a0<\/em>chanting \u2026 is believed to be powerful and efficacious.\u201d On this interpretation, then, the effect of reciting a protective chant or verse relies on its relationship to truth, rather than on the Buddha being invested with some sort of control over the universe.\u00a0In sum, although there can be little doubt that texts with a protective function assumed a variety of roles in later times, it seems fair to conclude that the instances surveyed above do not support the proposed role of the Buddha as a cosmological element at the core of reality.<\/p>\n

The Buddha as a Refuge from Fear<\/strong><\/h5>\n

The potential role of recollecting the Buddha in a situation that is fearful is a central theme in a P\u0101li discourse with a range of parallels (SN 11.3, Waldschmidt 1932, pp. 43\u201353, S\u0100 982, E\u0100 24.1, Skilling 1994, pp. 264\u2013309). The discourse depicts the ruler of the celestial troops addressing his followers on the eve of a battle against the demons with the recommendation that, in case they experience fear during the actual combat, they should look at the crest of his standard. In the same way, a disciple of the Buddha should, in case fear arises, recollect the Buddha.<\/p>\n

The effect of such recollection finds a convenient illustration in the idea of the crest of a standard. In actual warfare, it would indeed be helpful to have something elevated high above the chaos of battle to provide an orientation and serve as a potential source of inspiration in order to overcome fear. The role of recollecting the Buddha appears to be similar, in the sense of relating to something elevated that can provide an orientation and serve as a potential source of inspiration in order to overcome fear.<\/p>\n

The parallel versions then draw a contrast between the ruler of the celestial troops, who is not free from defilements, and the Buddha, who is free from defilements. Skilling (1997, p. 461) expressed the underlying reasoning, in the way this is evident in the Tibetan version in particular, as follows:<\/p>\n

if gazing upon (or recollecting) \u015aakra\u2019s [the ruler of the celestial troops] standard can dispel fear, even though \u015aakra himself is not free from defilements, suffering and indeed fear itself, then recollection of the Buddha should be all the more effective, since the Buddha is free of these states.<\/p>\n

In line with the unconvincing proposals surveyed above, Shulman (2019, p. 224) commented on the P\u0101li version of this discourse that \u201cthe recollection draws on a more metaphysical understanding,\u201d as supposedly the Buddha\u2019s \u201caccomplishment is not private but public and cosmic; being devoid of passion, he is of a different ontological order.\u201d However, being devoid of passion is a quality shared by the Buddha and those of his disciples who have reached the higher two levels of awakening, which leaves little room for assuming that in the case of the Buddha this quality should be invested with substantially different implications.<\/p>\n

Recollecting the Buddha<\/strong><\/h5>\n

Given that the proposal of a substantially different understanding of the Buddha\u2019s role in the early discourses, in the sense of serving as an embodiment of a cosmological principle, is unconvincing, it does seem reasonable to propose that his condition of being a fully awakened one was central to the potential of recollecting him when facing fear. Understood in this way, a central aspect of recollecting the Buddha would be confidence in his awakening (An\u0101layo 2017b, p. 227).<\/p>\n

The actual undertaking of such recollection often finds description with the help of a standard phrase, introduced with a reference to the Tath\u0101gata, the \u201cthus-gone one\u201d (An\u0101layo 2017c). According to the early discourses, the Buddha frequently used this term to refer to himself. The standard phrase in question proceeds as follows:<\/p>\n

A noble disciple recollects the Tath\u0101gata: \u201cThe Blessed One is an arahant, fully awakened, endowed with knowledge and conduct, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, a supreme trainer of persons to be tamed, a teacher of celestials and humans, an awakened one, a blessed one.\u201d At the time when a noble disciple recollects the Tath\u0101gata, at that time their mind is not overwhelmed by lust, their mind is not overwhelmed by anger, and their mind is not overwhelmed by delusion. At that time their mind has indeed become upright with reference to the Tath\u0101gata.<\/p>\n

(AN 6.10:\u00a0ariyas\u0101vako tath\u0101gata\u1e43 anussarati: iti pi so bhagav\u0101 araha\u1e43 samm\u0101sambuddho vijj\u0101cara\u1e47asampanno sugato lokavid\u016b anuttaro purisadammas\u0101rathi satth\u0101 devamanuss\u0101na\u1e43 buddho bhagav\u0101 ti. yasmi\u1e43 \u2026 samaye ariyas\u0101vako tath\u0101gata\u1e43 anussarati, nev\u2019 assa tasmi\u1e43 samaye r\u0101gapariyu\u1e6d\u1e6dhita\u1e43 citta\u1e43 hoti, na dosapariyu\u1e6d\u1e6dhita\u1e43 citta\u1e43 hoti, na mohapariyu\u1e6d\u1e6dhita\u1e43 citta\u1e43 hoti; ujugatam ev\u2019 assa tasmi\u1e43 samaye citta\u1e43 hoti tath\u0101gata\u1e43 \u0101rabbha<\/em>).<\/p>\n

A noble disciple recollects with the Tath\u0101gata as the object: \u201cThe Tath\u0101gata is an arahant, fully awakened, endowed with knowledge and conduct, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, a supreme person, a tamer of persons, a teacher of celestials and humans, an awakened one, a blessed one.\u201d At the time of recollecting in this way, the noble disciple does not give rise to the entanglement of lustful desire and does not give rise to a mind of anger or of delusion. That mind is straight and upright, having reached the significance of the Tath\u0101gata.<\/p>\n

(S\u0100 931:\u00a0\u8056\u5f1f\u5b50\u5ff5\u5982\u4f86\u4e8b: \u5982\u4f86, \u61c9, \u7b49\u6b63\u89ba, \u660e\u884c\u8db3, \u5584\u901d, \u4e16\u9593\u89e3,\u00a0\u7121\u4e0a\u58eb, \u8abf\u5fa1\u4e08\u592b, \u5929\u4eba\u5e2b, \u4f5b, \u4e16\u5c0a. \u8056\u5f1f\u5b50\u5982\u662f\u5ff5\u6642, \u4e0d\u8d77\u8caa\u6b32\u7e8f, \u4e0d\u8d77\u778b\u605a, \u611a\u7661\u5fc3; \u5176\u5fc3\u6b63\u76f4, \u5f97\u5982\u4f86\u7fa9).<\/p>\n

One recollects the Tath\u0101gata, the arahant, the fully awakened one, endowed with knowledge and conduct, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, a supreme person, a tamer of persons, a teacher of celestials and humans, an awakened one, a blessed one. At that time there is no lustful desire, anger, or delusion; there is just purity and straightness of the mind. Because of the straightness of the mind, one gains the teachings, gains their meanings, and gains drawing close to the Buddha.<\/p>\n

(S\u01002<\/sup>\u00a0156:\u00a0\u5ff5\u65bc\u5982\u4f86, \u61c9\u4f9b, \u6b63\u904d\u77e5, \u660e\u884c\u8db3, \u5584\u901d, \u4e16\u9593\u89e3, \u7121\u4e0a\u58eb, \u8abf\u5fa1\u4e08\u592b, \u5929\u4eba\u5e2b, \u4f5b, \u4e16\u5c0a. \u7576\u4e8e\u723e\u6642, \u7121\u6709\u8caa\u6b32, \u778b\u605a, \u611a\u7661, \u552f\u6709\u6e05\u6de8\u8cea\u76f4\u4e4b\u5fc3; \u4ee5\u76f4\u5fc3\u6545, \u5f97\u6cd5, \u5f97\u7fa9, \u5f97\u89aa\u8fd1\u4f5b).<\/p>\n

The parallel versions agree in depicting how such recollection results in the arising of joy that in turn leads over to mental composure. The source of such joy, according to the passages translated above, has its starting point in bringing to mind that the Buddha is an arahant, which signifies that he has totally removed all mental defilements. Needless to say, this is a quality the Buddha shares with all of his arahant disciples. The next quality differs in this respect, as it represents a unique quality of the Buddha. It reflects his accomplishing the difficult feat of reaching awakening without having a teacher to guide him. In this respect, his disciples are in an easier position, as they can follow the example set by him and implement his instructions in order to become arahants. As pointed out by Bodhi (2013, p. 9), in this way \u201cthe Buddha is extolled, not primarily as the one who has attained his own liberation, but as the one who opens the doors of liberation for others.\u201d<\/p>\n

The reference to being endowed with knowledge and conduct reflects the importance accorded in the early discourses to the complementary nature of these two. The epithet \u201cwell-gone one\u201d conveys nuances similar to the expression \u201cthus-gone one.\u201d The Buddha\u2019s penetrative insight makes him a \u201cknower of the world.\u201d The next two epithets relate to his teaching activity, in that he is a \u201csupreme trainer of persons to be tamed\u201d and that he teaches both celestials and humans. The first of these two epithets has suffered from a mistranslation in the Chinese versions. Nattier (2003, p. 227) explained that this type of translation is based on taking the terms \u201csupreme\u201d and \u201cperson(s)\u201d as a first epithet in its own right. The remainder of the compound became a second epithet.<\/p>\n

The final two epithets are \u201can awakened one,\u201d corresponding to the term Buddha, and \u201ca blessed one.\u201d Elsewhere in the early discourses, the latter term regularly occurs when disciples refer to the Buddha. Although in the ancient Indian setting this term was used for celestials, Williams (1989\/2009, p. 174) explained that \u201cit was natural to refer to the Buddha in terms also used of gods. Such indicated little more than an attitude of deep respect and humility on the part of his followers.\u201d Endo (1997\/2002, p. 16) noted that the same term occurs in the\u00a0Upani\u1e63ad<\/em>s and the\u00a0Mah\u0101bh\u0101rata<\/em>, where it\u00a0<\/em>serves \u201cas a respectful address to the teacher by pupils. This meaning was inherited in Buddhism.\u201d<\/p>\n

What emerges from the above translated versions of the standard phrase is well in keeping with a suggestion made at the outset of the present exploration. Since the other recollections listed earlier fall within the sphere of personal experience of disciples of the Buddha, it could be expected that the Buddha also represents something that a disciple can relate to from the viewpoint of personal experience. Such relationship to personal experience is in fact brought out quite explicitly in the three versions translated above, which show how, by dint of recollecting the Buddha, the mind becomes temporarily free from lust, anger, and delusion. The complete and permanent absence of the same three root defilements is in turn what marks the difference between the Buddha and the ruler of the celestial troops, according to the passage examined earlier.<\/p>\n

In sum, recollection of the Buddha can be understood to revolve in particular around the inspiration to be gained by bringing to mind the person who realized permanent freedom from defilements on his own and taught others how to achieve the same aim (An\u0101layo 2017b). By recollecting this and then personally experiencing the result of at least a short-term abeyance of defilements in the mind, the disciple would be enacting in a temporary manner what according to early Buddhist thought can be achieved on a permanent basis through wholehearted dedication to the teachings. This would explain why the inspiration gained through such recollection can be expected to offer substantial support for overcoming fear.<\/p>\n

Compliance with Ethical Standards<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ethical Approval: This article does not contain any studies performed by the author with human participants or animals.<\/p>\n

Conflict of Interest: The author declares there is no conflict of interest.<\/p>\n

Abbreviations<\/strong><\/p>\n

AN,\u00a0A\u1e45guttara-nik\u0101ya<\/em>; D\u0100,\u00a0D\u012brgha-\u0101gama\u00a0<\/em>(T 1);\u00a0DN,\u00a0D\u012bgha-nik\u0101ya<\/em>; E\u0100,\u00a0Ekottarika-\u0101gama\u00a0<\/em>(T 125);\u00a0M\u0100,\u00a0Madhyama-\u0101gama\u00a0<\/em>(T 26);\u00a0MN,\u00a0Majjhima-nik\u0101ya<\/em>;\u00a0S\u0100,\u00a0Sa\u1e43yukta-\u0101gama<\/em>\u00a0(T 99);\u00a0S\u01002<\/sup>,\u00a0Sa\u1e43yukta-\u0101gama<\/em>\u00a0(T 100);\u00a0SN,\u00a0Sa\u1e43yutta-nik\u0101ya<\/em>; Sn,\u00a0Suttanip\u0101ta<\/em>;\u00a0Spk,\u00a0S\u0101ratthappak\u0101sin\u012b<\/em>; Sv,\u00a0Suma\u1e45galavil\u0101sin\u012b<\/em>\u00a0T, Taish\u014d edition; Up,\u00a0Abhidharmako\u015bop\u0101yik\u0101-\u1e6d\u012bk\u0101<\/em><\/p>\n

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